Is leadership about substance or perception? The truth is, it's both. You must not only be effective; you must also appear effective.
Impression management — first introduced by Erving Goffman — has been widely studied and researched. And it's especially relevant to leadership. In this piece, I dig into Goffman’s framework and its implications for modern leadership.
In the summer of 1940, as bombs fell on London, Winston Churchill was often seen walking through rubble-strewn streets, cigar in hand, chatting with rescue workers and comforting survivors. This wasn't just bravery; it was a masterclass in leadership impression management. Churchill understood that in times of crisis, a leader's perceived demeanor is as crucial as their decisions.
Today, while the stakes may not be as high, the principle remains: effective leadership is not just about making the right calls, but also about how you're perceived.
What is impression management?
Impression management is the process by which we attempt to influence others' perceptions of us. Goffman's "dramaturgical perspective" likens social interactions to theatrical performances, where individuals play roles and use scripts within specific settings to convey desired impressions.
As Shakespeare said:
All the world’s a stage, and all the men and women are merely players. They have their exits and entrances, and one man in his time plays many parts.
This framework involves the "front stage" and "back stage":
- On the front stage, you perform for your audience. You project confidence, capability, and alignment with expected traits.
- The back stage is where you prepare, rehearse, and refine these performances. It ensures your public presentation aligns with your goals.
Within the walls of a social establishment we find a team of performers who cooperate to present to an audience a given definition of the situation. This will include the conception of own team and of audience and assumptions concerning the ethos that is to be maintained by rules of politeness and decorum. We often find a division into back region, where the performance of a routine is prepared, and front region, where the performance is presented.
— Erving Goffman [1]
As a leader, you're constantly moving between these spaces, adapting your performance to different contexts and audiences. Effective impression management isn't about deception. It's about clarity and intentionality in communication. You're not creating a false image, but rather ensuring your true capabilities, values, and intentions are accurately perceived.
In organizations, impression management means:
- Deliberate choices in behavior and communication that shape others' perceptions.
- A tool for navigating complex political landscapes.
- A means of establishing and maintaining your leadership identity.
- A way to align your abilities and intentions with others' expectations.
The key is to view impression management not as a superficial act, but as a fundamental leadership skill. It's about bridging the gap between your internal reality and others' perception. When done authentically, it enhances your ability to influence, build trust, and lead effectively.
Consciously approaching it ensures the image you project aligns with your leadership goals.
The necessity of impression management in leadership
A status, a position, a social place is not a material thing, to be possessed and then displayed; it is a pattern of appropriate conduct, coherent, embellished, and well articulated. Performed with ease or clumsiness, awareness or not, guile or good faith, it is none the less something that must be enacted and portrayed, something that must be realized.
— Erving Goffman [1]
The stage metaphor is perhaps nowhere more true than in leadership. As a leader, you must manage how different groups perceive you — from direct reports and peers to external stakeholders.
This involves controlling both the performance and the environment. It includes setting the stage through communication, tailoring demeanor based on context, and adjusting behavior in real-time based on feedback.
It’s easy to dismiss impression management as manipulation. But the reality is that you’re already engaging in it. Ever rehearsed what to say in an important meeting? Did you choose your outfit carefully for an interview? You were practicing impression management.
The real question is whether it’s by design or an accident.
Here are four key reasons why impression management is fundamental to effective leadership:
1. It aligns with how people judge leaders
Research on Implicit Leadership Theories (ILTs) reveals that people carry deep-seated beliefs about what makes an effective leader. These preconceptions are shaped by culture, social experiences, and personal history. By understanding and responding to these expectations, you bridge the gap between your capabilities and others’ perceptions.
2. It's a fundamental skill
This isn't just theory; the research is clear. Leaders who master impression management consistently demonstrate:
- Higher job performance ratings
- Increased motivation
- Stronger "organizational citizenship" behaviors
- Enhanced social competence
Think of impression management as a meta-skill that helps you navigate complex organizational landscapes.
3. It shapes your leadership identity
When you consistently present yourself in a particular way, you initiate a transformation process. What begins as conscious impression management evolves into authentic self-development. The "performance" becomes real as you embody the behaviors you initially had to think about.
This is how the "facade" becomes the "self." You're not just acting — you're actively sculpting who you are. Through the reciprocal relationship between action and identity, you intentionally grow into the leader you aspire to be.
4. It's central to leadership
Leadership is inherently performative. You're evaluated not just on what you do, but also how you present it. Different audiences and situations demand different approaches. The key is ensuring your performance remains grounded in authenticity:
- Understand your audience.
- Consider the context.
- Clarify your message.
- Tailor your approach while staying true to values.
When done right, impression management creates alignment between your beliefs and behaviors, bridging the gap between intention and impact.
Techniques of impression management
Leaders can deploy impression management in various ways. Let’s examine some of them.
1. Leading by example
Demonstrate discipline and commitment by being visibly involved in important projects or tasks. This includes taking on high-stakes responsibilities, working alongside your team during critical periods, and handling difficult assignments.
Take the lead in crisis situations, or volunteer to tackle challenges that others avoid. By "walking the talk," you exemplify the behaviors and values you want your team to adopt.
2. Self-promotion
Highlight your successes to demonstrate your competency without seeming boastful. Self-promotion helps others recognize your value, especially in large organizations where individual contributions are not always clear.
Share milestones in meetings as collective achievements. Focus on how your contributions positively impact the organization rather than on personal accolades.
3. Self-disclosure
Share personal experiences, especially moments of failure or growth, to make yourself relatable. When the team faces setbacks, share a similar past experience and what you learned. This signals that fallibility and failure are part of growth, reducing the fear of mistakes.
Self-disclosure is a very underrated skill in effective leadership. The Johari Window is an effective tool to help leaders understand what and how much to disclose.
4. Maintaining “face”
During conflict or delivering critical feedback, help others maintain their dignity. Ensure your own image is intact while also protecting the "face" of others involved.
In public criticism or disagreement, reframe negative comments to preserve the respect and status of those involved. For example, "I understand your perspective, and I think we're both aiming for the best outcome here, just in different ways. Let's find a compromise." This helps de-escalate tensions while preserving relationships.
For a range of “recipes” using the ladder of inference, check out my piece on ground rules for effective meetings.
5. Modesty to enhance relatability
Practice humility to soften your image and make yourself more approachable, especially when leading new teams or during success that could create distance.
After a significant win, downplay individual praise and instead focus on the team's contributions. A statement like "I couldn't have done this without everyone's hard work" acknowledges collective effort and strengthens morale, showing you value everyone's input.
6. Emotional regulation for consistency
Manage your emotions to project the appropriate tone — calm, confident, empathetic, or enthusiastic — depending on the situation.
During high-stress moments, like a crisis, project calmness and confidence. Even if internally uncertain, your external composure reassures others and helps them feel secure. In routine interactions, practice empathy to enhance connection.
7. Reframing situations
Use framing and reframing to shape how situations are interpreted. This changes how your team responds and shifts focus toward desired outcomes. If a project faces setbacks, frame it as a learning opportunity rather than a failure. This turns a negative situation into an empowering narrative.
8. Political skill
Political skill involves being socially astute, building networks, and using influence without appearing manipulative. Use this skill to manage how you’re perceived across different stakeholder groups.
During negotiations, be attentive to each party’s concerns and adjust your messaging to their needs. Skilled leaders can make others feel valued and understood while guiding them toward collective goals.
Political skill includes:
- Building coalitions across levels
- Managing competing interests without appearing biased
- Creating mutually beneficial situations that benefit multiple stakeholders
- Developing relationships while maintaining professional boundaries
The key is to practice these skills without appearing calculating. When done well, political skill makes organizations run smoothly while creating positive relationships.
9. Acknowledge mistakes
When mistakes happen, own up to them promptly and reframe them as learning moments. This demonstrates accountability and resilience.
If you made a wrong call, admit it before others do. Frame it as, “I misjudged that situation, and here’s what I learned.” This keeps your credibility intact while showing growth, making you appear strong and trustworthy in the face of setbacks.
10. Balance with psychological safety
Balance impression management with psychological safety to ensure team members feel comfortable taking risks without fear of judgment. Display fallibility in measured ways and encourage others to do the same.
Share your mistakes and lessons learned. This signals that managing impressions doesn’t mean pretending to be infallible and encourages others to speak up without fear of damaging their image.
11. Use humor
Humor is effective in making you approachable, reducing social distance, and diffusing tension. However, it must be appropriate and situational.
Use light humor to ease tense meetings. Self-deprecating humor softens your image, provided it doesn’t undermine your authority. Joking about an innocuous personal quirk can make you relatable while maintaining respect.
When Churchill walked through London's bomb-damaged streets, he wasn't just showing up - he was exercising visible leadership. Through deliberate impression management, he turned fear into resilience.
Impression management isn't just about personal image; it's an effective tool for shaping the organizational climate. How you present yourself cascades through the organization, influencing everything from communication patterns to team dynamics.
When aligned with values, it's a force multiplier.
As you refine your leadership, consider not just what you do but how you’re perceived. Align your impression management with values, and let your performance be both strategic and genuinely you.
Sources
- Goffman, E. (1959). The presentation of self in everyday life.
- DuBrin, A. J. (2011). Impression management in the workplace: Research, theory, and practice.
- Klein, S. M., & Ritti, R. R. (1984). Understanding organizational behavior.
- Pfeffer, J. (1992). Managing with power: Politics and influence in organizations.
- Stacey, R. D. (2005). Complexity and the experience of managing in the public sector.
- Lord, R. G., & Maher, K. J. (1991). Leadership and information processing: Linking perceptions and performance.